Brussels: A City Made of Layers

Brussels is often introduced with abbreviations and functions: capital of Belgium, de facto capital of the European Union, headquarters of NATO, a bilingual metropolis perched between Latin and Germanic Europe. Yet none of these labels truly explain the city. Brussels is not a place that grew according to a single plan or idea. It is a city assembled over centuries through compromise, accident, destruction, reinvention, and negotiation—sometimes peaceful, often tense. Its history is not a straight line but a palimpsest, where older stories remain faintly visible beneath newer ones. To understand Brussels is to accept complexity: a city shaped as much by marshland and rivers as by emperors, merchants, revolutionaries, bureaucrats, and migrants.

Origins in the Marshes

The very name of Brussels hints at its earliest identity. Most historians trace it to the Old Dutch Bruocsella or Broekzele, meaning “settlement in the marsh.” Long before Brussels was a capital, it was a pragmatic response to geography. The Senne River flowed through a low-lying, swampy area that was difficult to inhabit but strategically valuable. Marshes offered natural defense, while the river provided access to trade routes connecting inland Europe to the North Sea.

The earliest permanent settlement likely emerged in the late 10th century, when Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, built a fortified residence on an island in the Senne around 979. This modest stronghold, often cited as the city’s founding moment, was less a grand vision than a practical move: control the river crossing, secure territory, and project authority in a fragmented feudal landscape. Around this nucleus, a small community of fishermen, farmers, and traders began to cluster.

Religion soon followed power. A chapel dedicated to Saint Gudula, later expanded into the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula, became a focal point of spiritual life. The early Brussels community was still small and vulnerable, but it had something crucial: a position between worlds. It lay at the crossroads of Romance-speaking and Germanic-speaking regions, a liminal space that would define its character for centuries.

Medieval Growth and the Rise of a City

By the 12th and 13th centuries, Brussels was no longer merely a fortified settlement. It had become a town with walls, markets, and guilds. The construction of the first city walls marked a turning point, signaling both growth and confidence. A second, larger ring of walls followed in the 14th century, enclosing a city that had expanded far beyond its original core.

Medieval Brussels prospered through trade and craftsmanship. It was particularly known for its textile production, especially luxury cloths and tapestries. Brussels tapestries would eventually gain international fame, adorning the palaces of Europe and reinforcing the city’s reputation as a center of artistic skill. Guilds regulated production, protected members, and played a major role in civic life. They were not just economic units but political actors, capable of challenging ducal authority when necessary.

The city’s political importance increased when Brussels became one of the principal residences of the Dukes of Brabant. Their presence attracted courtiers, administrators, and foreign visitors. The Coudenberg Palace, perched on a hill overlooking the lower town, symbolized this shift. Brussels was now both a commercial hub and a seat of power—a dual identity that would endure.

Yet medieval life was precarious. Plagues, fires, and periodic violence punctuated periods of prosperity. Social tensions between patricians and guild members occasionally erupted into unrest. Still, Brussels proved resilient, rebuilding and adapting, gradually weaving together its civic institutions.

Burgundian Splendor and Urban Identity

The 15th century brought Brussels into the orbit of the powerful Burgundian state. Under the Dukes of Burgundy, particularly Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, the Low Countries experienced economic dynamism and cultural flowering. Brussels benefited immensely. It became one of the main administrative centers of the Burgundian Netherlands, hosting courts, councils, and ceremonies that projected ducal authority.

This period left a deep imprint on the city’s identity. Art and architecture flourished. The Grand Place (Grote Markt), now one of Brussels’ most iconic spaces, took shape as the symbolic heart of civic life. Guild halls, each more elaborate than the last, lined the square, competing in ornamentation and prestige. The Hôtel de Ville (Town Hall), with its soaring Gothic tower, expressed the ambitions of a self-confident urban elite.

Burgundian rule also reinforced Brussels’ role as a meeting place of cultures. French, Dutch, Latin, and regional dialects mingled in courtly and commercial contexts. This multilingual environment was not always harmonious, but it encouraged adaptability and exchange. Brussels was learning how to function as a city of intermediaries—between rulers and subjects, regions and markets.

Habsburg Rule and Religious Upheaval

The Burgundian legacy passed to the Habsburgs through marriage, drawing Brussels into a vast imperial network. Under Charles V, born in nearby Ghent, Brussels reached a peak of political importance. The city hosted imperial ceremonies and served as a key administrative center for the Habsburg Netherlands. In 1555, Charles V famously abdicated in Brussels, an event that underscored the city’s symbolic weight.

But this era also brought profound tension. The Protestant Reformation challenged Catholic orthodoxy, and the Habsburg response was harsh. Brussels became a stage for repression and resistance. The Council of Troubles, known as the “Council of Blood,” operated in the city, condemning thousands for heresy and rebellion. These measures fueled resentment and contributed to the wider revolt that would eventually lead to the independence of the northern provinces as the Dutch Republic.

Brussels, however, remained in the southern, Catholic Netherlands. The Eighty Years’ War disrupted trade and stability, but the city survived, albeit diminished. Religious conflict reshaped its social fabric, entrenching Catholic institutions while marginalizing dissenting voices. Churches, monasteries, and charitable foundations expanded, reinforcing a baroque Catholic culture that would define the city’s appearance in the 17th century.

Destruction and Baroque Rebirth

One of the most traumatic events in Brussels’ history occurred in 1695, when French troops under Louis XIV bombarded the city. The attack devastated the Grand Place and surrounding neighborhoods, destroying hundreds of buildings. For contemporaries, it was a shocking act of aggression against a civilian city, widely condemned across Europe.

Yet from destruction came transformation. The reconstruction of the Grand Place became a collective civic project. Guilds rebuilt their halls in the exuberant baroque style, creating the harmonious ensemble admired today. While the medieval fabric was largely lost, the new square expressed resilience and pride. Brussels had turned catastrophe into an opportunity to redefine itself visually and symbolically.

Politically, the city passed from Spanish to Austrian Habsburg control in the early 18th century. The Austrian period was relatively stable and saw administrative reforms, urban improvements, and cultural life flourish. Enlightenment ideas circulated among elites, and institutions such as academies and theaters gained prominence. Brussels was no longer an imperial capital, but it remained an important regional center.

Revolution, Empire, and the Road to Belgium

The late 18th century shattered the old order. Inspired by Enlightenment ideals and revolutionary movements, the Brabant Revolution briefly expelled Austrian rule in 1789. Although the revolt failed, it revealed growing discontent with absolutist governance. Soon after, French revolutionary armies annexed the Southern Netherlands, incorporating Brussels into France.

Under French rule, the city underwent significant changes. Feudal privileges were abolished, administrative structures centralized, and secularization advanced. Churches and monasteries were closed or repurposed, altering the urban landscape. The French period also introduced modern legal and educational reforms that would leave lasting legacies.

After Napoleon’s defeat, Brussels became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, ruled by King William I. This union of north and south proved unstable. Religious, linguistic, and economic differences fueled dissatisfaction, particularly in the southern provinces. In 1830, revolution erupted in Brussels following a performance of an opera that inflamed patriotic sentiment. Barricades went up, fighting ensued, and within months, Belgium emerged as an independent state.

Brussels was chosen as the new nation’s capital, a decision that would profoundly shape its future.

Capital of a New State

As the capital of Belgium, Brussels had to reinvent itself once again. The young state invested heavily in transforming the city into a symbol of national pride and modernity. Boulevards replaced old fortifications, public buildings rose, and infrastructure expanded. King Leopold I and his successors saw urban development as a way to assert Belgium’s legitimacy among European powers.

The 19th century was also the era of industrialization. While Brussels was not an industrial powerhouse on the scale of cities like Liège or Ghent, it benefited from Belgium’s economic growth. Railways connected it to the rest of the country and beyond. Banks, insurance companies, and trading houses flourished, reinforcing Brussels’ role as an administrative and financial center.

However, modernization came at a cost. Working-class neighborhoods were often overcrowded and unsanitary. Social inequalities widened, prompting the rise of socialist movements and labor activism. Brussels became a political battleground where debates about suffrage, education, and social reform played out.

Linguistically, tensions intensified. French increasingly dominated administration and elite life, marginalizing Dutch-speaking populations. This imbalance would later fuel the Flemish movement and reshape Belgian politics in the 20th century.

World Wars and Occupation

The 20th century tested Brussels in new ways. During World War I, German forces occupied the city. Although Brussels was spared large-scale destruction, daily life was marked by shortages, censorship, and uncertainty. The occupation left deep psychological scars and reinforced Belgian national consciousness.

The interwar period brought both cultural vibrancy and political anxiety. Art Nouveau architecture, pioneered by figures such as Victor Horta, reshaped Brussels’ urban identity with its flowing lines and innovative use of materials. At the same time, economic instability and the rise of extremist ideologies cast long shadows.

World War II returned occupation to Brussels. Once again, the city endured German control, resistance activity, and the persecution of Jewish residents. Liberation in 1944 was celebrated, but the war’s aftermath confronted Brussels with moral reckoning and reconstruction.

European Capital and Postwar Transformation

After 1945, Brussels entered perhaps its most dramatic phase of change. Belgium was a founding member of new European institutions aimed at preventing future conflicts. Gradually, Brussels became their host. What began as a practical choice evolved into a defining identity: Brussels as the capital of Europe.

This transformation was not seamless. The rapid construction of office buildings in the mid-20th century—often referred to as “Brusselization”—destroyed historic neighborhoods and displaced residents. Urban planning favored cars and bureaucracy over community, leaving scars that are still debated today.

Yet the European presence also brought diversity and internationalism. Diplomats, civil servants, lobbyists, and journalists from across the continent settled in the city. Brussels became one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world, where dozens of languages are spoken daily.

At the same time, Belgium’s internal structure changed. Federalization transformed Brussels into a bilingual region with its own institutions. Managing linguistic balance became a central political challenge, requiring constant negotiation and compromise.

A City of Migration and Reinvention

Postwar Brussels was also shaped by migration. Workers from Italy, Spain, Morocco, Turkey, and later Eastern Europe and beyond arrived to fill labor shortages. They brought new cultures, cuisines, and traditions, reshaping neighborhoods and social life. Areas like Molenbeek, Schaerbeek, and Anderlecht became emblematic of Brussels’ diversity.

This diversity was not without tension. Economic inequality, discrimination, and urban segregation posed serious challenges. Yet they also forced Brussels to confront questions of identity and belonging. The city’s history of coexistence—sometimes uneasy, sometimes creative—offered tools for adaptation.

Brussels Today: History in Motion

Today’s Brussels is a city where history is not confined to museums. Medieval streets coexist with glass towers. Baroque facades face modern trams. Political protests unfold in squares once shaped by guilds and monarchs. The city’s past is present not as a single narrative but as overlapping layers.

Brussels has never been a city of absolutes. It thrives on negotiation, on finding ways to function amid difference. Its history is marked less by dominance than by survival—by the ability to absorb shocks, reinterpret itself, and move forward.

To walk through Brussels is to walk through time, not in a linear march but in a conversation. The marshland settlement still echoes beneath the pavement. The medieval merchant, the Habsburg courtier, the revolutionary, the bureaucrat, and the migrant all left traces. Together, they made a city that resists simplification.

Brussels’ story is not finished. Like its past, its future will be shaped by compromise, creativity, and the stubborn persistence of a place that has learned, again and again, how to become something new without entirely letting go of what it has been.