Alexandria: A City Between Seas and Centuries

Introduction: The Idea of a City

Alexandria is more than a place on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt; it is an idea that has been repeatedly imagined, built, lost, and rebuilt across more than two millennia. Few cities in world history have carried such a dense concentration of symbolism. Alexandria has been envisioned as a beacon of knowledge, a crossroads of civilizations, a prize of empires, a cosmopolitan refuge, and at times a city haunted by the weight of its own legends. Its history is not a straight line but a series of overlapping waves, each leaving traces that reshaped the city’s identity.

Founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE, Alexandria was born with ambition written into its foundations. It was planned as a city of reason and power, meant to link Greece and Egypt, Europe and Africa, the Mediterranean and the Nile. Over centuries, it became home to scholars who tried to map the universe, merchants who connected continents, and rulers who sought to legitimize their authority through culture as much as conquest. Yet Alexandria also endured decline, earthquakes, religious conflict, and political marginalization, reminding historians that even the most brilliant cities are fragile.

Before Alexander: The Coast Before the City

Long before Alexandria existed, Egypt’s relationship with the Mediterranean was cautious. The Nile Valley had always been oriented inward, focused on the rhythms of the river and the deserts that protected it. While Egyptians traded with the eastern Mediterranean and maintained ports such as Naucratis, they did not develop a major coastal metropolis comparable to later Alexandria.

The site where Alexandria would rise was once a modest fishing village called Rhakotis. It was inhabited by Egyptians who lived between the sea and Lake Mareotis, relying on fishing, small-scale trade, and local religious practices. This humble settlement had no indication of the role it would one day play in world history. Yet its geographic position was ideal: close to the western edge of the Nile Delta, facing the Mediterranean trade routes, and near the island of Pharos, which would later give its name to the world’s most famous lighthouse.

Alexander the Great arrived in Egypt as a conqueror, but he was welcomed as a liberator from Persian rule. During his visit, he consulted local priests, paid homage to Egyptian gods, and sought divine legitimacy. According to tradition, he personally traced the outlines of his new city on the ground, marking streets and walls with barley flour. Whether literal or symbolic, the story captures how Alexandria was imagined from the beginning as a deliberate act of design rather than organic growth.

The Hellenistic Experiment: A City of the Ptolemies

After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, his empire fractured among his generals. Egypt fell to Ptolemy I, who transformed Alexandria into the capital of his new dynasty. Under the Ptolemies, the city became the heart of the Hellenistic world—a place where Greek culture was not merely imported, but aggressively cultivated and fused with Egyptian traditions.

Alexandria was laid out on a grid pattern, with wide avenues and distinct quarters. It was divided into districts that reflected its multicultural population: Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, and others lived side by side, though not always as equals. The ruling class was predominantly Greek-speaking, and Greek institutions dominated public life. Yet Egyptian religious practices continued, and new hybrid forms of worship emerged, most famously the cult of Serapis, a god designed to appeal to both Greek and Egyptian sensibilities.

The city’s greatest symbol was the Library of Alexandria, part of a larger institution known as the Mouseion, or “Temple of the Muses.” This was not a library in the modern sense, but a research center, university, and archive combined. Scholars were supported by royal patronage, freeing them from the need to earn a living and allowing them to devote themselves entirely to study.

At its height, the Library aimed to collect all known knowledge. Ships entering Alexandria’s harbor were searched for books, which were copied and sometimes retained while the originals were kept in the Library. Scholars such as Euclid, who systematized geometry; Eratosthenes, who calculated the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy; and Hipparchus, who advanced astronomy, worked in or were associated with Alexandria. The city became synonymous with intellectual ambition.

Yet the Ptolemaic period was also marked by political intrigue, dynastic violence, and social tension. Royal siblings married each other to preserve power, and court politics often ended in exile or murder. Beneath the city’s brilliance lay deep divisions, particularly between the Greek elite and the native Egyptian population, who were often excluded from power.

Alexandria and the Jewish Diaspora

One of Alexandria’s most distinctive features was its large and influential Jewish community. Jews had lived in Egypt for centuries, but under the Ptolemies, Alexandria became one of the most important centers of Jewish life outside Jerusalem. The city’s Jews were integrated into its economic and intellectual life, while also maintaining a strong sense of religious identity.

It was in Alexandria that the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, producing the Septuagint. This translation was crucial not only for Jews living in the Hellenistic world, but later for Christians, who relied heavily on the Greek scriptures. Alexandrian Jewish thinkers such as Philo attempted to reconcile Greek philosophy with Jewish theology, arguing that reason and revelation were ultimately compatible.

Despite periods of coexistence, tensions between Jews, Greeks, and Egyptians sometimes erupted into violence. Alexandria witnessed several major riots, reflecting the challenges of managing a diverse urban population within an imperial framework. These conflicts foreshadowed later struggles over religious and cultural identity that would shape the city’s future.

Under Rome: Power Shifts and Urban Grandeur

In 30 BCE, Alexandria entered a new phase when it fell under Roman control following the defeat of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony by Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus. The death of Cleopatra marked not only the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty but also the symbolic end of the Hellenistic age.

Under Roman rule, Alexandria remained one of the empire’s most important cities, second only to Rome itself in population and significance. Egypt was Rome’s breadbasket, and Alexandria was the key port through which grain was shipped to feed the capital. This made the city strategically vital, but also politically sensitive. Roman emperors governed Egypt through appointed prefects rather than senators, ensuring direct imperial control.

The Romans invested in Alexandria’s infrastructure, maintaining its harbors, temples, and public buildings. The city continued to be a center of learning, though the character of scholarship gradually changed. Philosophy, medicine, and theology flourished, while the natural sciences became more intertwined with practical concerns.

Yet Roman Alexandria was also a city of unrest. Its residents were known for their sharp wit and political satire, which often put them at odds with imperial authorities. Riots were frequent, and emperors sometimes responded with brutal repression. The famous Library, already diminished by earlier fires and neglect, suffered further losses during this period, though its exact fate remains debated among historians.

The Rise of Christianity: Faith and Conflict

Alexandria played a crucial role in the early history of Christianity. According to tradition, the city was evangelized by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the first century CE. By the second and third centuries, Alexandria had become one of the most important centers of Christian thought.

The Catechetical School of Alexandria produced influential theologians such as Clement of Alexandria and Origen, who developed sophisticated approaches to scripture that combined allegorical interpretation with philosophical reasoning. Alexandrian Christianity emphasized intellectual engagement and theological depth, shaping debates that resonated across the Roman world.

However, the rise of Christianity also intensified religious conflict. Pagan, Jewish, and Christian communities competed for influence, and theological disputes within Christianity itself often turned violent. The destruction of the Serapeum, a major temple complex associated with the old pagan traditions, symbolized the triumph of Christianity but also the loss of a link to Alexandria’s earlier intellectual heritage.

The murder of the philosopher Hypatia in the early fifth century remains one of the most haunting episodes in the city’s history. A mathematician and Neoplatonist thinker, Hypatia represented the lingering classical tradition. Her death at the hands of a Christian mob has come to symbolize the destructive potential of fanaticism and the end of an era of relative intellectual pluralism.

Byzantine Alexandria: Decline and Resilience

As the Roman Empire transformed into the Byzantine Empire, Alexandria’s importance gradually declined. Political power shifted eastward to Constantinople, and theological disputes consumed much of the city’s energy. Conflicts between Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian Christians divided the population, weakening social cohesion.

Economic challenges also took their toll. Changes in trade routes and repeated outbreaks of plague reduced the city’s population. Earthquakes damaged infrastructure, and parts of the ancient city slipped into ruin or were claimed by the sea.

Despite these hardships, Alexandria remained a significant urban center. Its patriarch wielded considerable influence, and the city continued to serve as a hub for regional trade. Alexandria’s ability to endure, even in reduced circumstances, speaks to the strength of its geographic and cultural foundations.

The Arab Conquest and Islamic Alexandria

In 641 CE, Arab Muslim forces led by Amr ibn al-As captured Alexandria after a prolonged siege. The conquest marked a major turning point in the city’s history, integrating it into the expanding Islamic world.

Contrary to some later legends, the Arab conquest did not result in the immediate destruction of Alexandria’s learning or population. The city remained important for several centuries, serving as a major port and naval base. However, the political center of Egypt shifted inland to Fustat (near modern Cairo), reducing Alexandria’s administrative importance.

Under Islamic rule, Alexandria became known for its religious scholarship, particularly in Islamic jurisprudence and theology. Sufi traditions flourished, and the city gained a reputation for piety as well as trade. Its lighthouse, though damaged by earthquakes, continued to inspire travelers and geographers.

Over time, however, Alexandria became more provincial. Silting harbors and changing trade patterns diminished its role in international commerce. The once-great metropolis of antiquity was now a shadow of its former self, living amid the ruins of its own legends.

Medieval and Ottoman Alexandria: A Quiet Port

During the medieval period, Alexandria functioned primarily as a regional trading city and pilgrimage point for Muslims traveling to Mecca. Under the Mamluks and later the Ottomans, it remained an important but secondary port, overshadowed by Cairo.

European travelers who visited Alexandria during this time often remarked on its decayed grandeur. Ancient columns lay scattered, half-buried in sand, and monumental ruins hinted at a past that seemed almost mythical. Yet life went on, shaped by fishing, trade, and local religious practices.

This quieter phase of Alexandria’s history is sometimes overlooked, but it is essential for understanding the city’s resilience. Alexandria did not disappear; it adapted, preserving continuity even as its global prominence faded.

Modern Revival: Alexandria in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

Alexandria experienced a dramatic revival in the nineteenth century under Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Ottoman governor who modernized Egypt. New canals reconnected the city to the Nile, revitalizing its economy and transforming it once again into a major port.

The city attracted migrants from across the Mediterranean: Greeks, Italians, Armenians, Jews, Syrians, and others settled alongside Egyptians, creating a cosmopolitan society reminiscent of its ancient past. European architecture reshaped the urban landscape, and Alexandria became a center of commerce, culture, and publishing.

In the early twentieth century, Alexandria reached a peak of diversity and sophistication. It was a city of cafés, cinemas, and newspapers, celebrated in the works of writers such as C.P. Cavafy and Lawrence Durrell. Yet this cosmopolitan era was fragile. Political upheaval, decolonization, and regional conflict gradually dismantled the multicultural fabric that had defined modern Alexandria.

Contemporary Alexandria: Memory and Identity

Today, Alexandria is Egypt’s second-largest city, a sprawling metropolis where ancient ruins coexist with modern apartment blocks. Much of ancient Alexandria lies underwater or beneath later construction, challenging archaeologists and historians.

Efforts to revive the city’s intellectual legacy are symbolized by the modern Bibliotheca Alexandrina, inaugurated in 2002. While it cannot recreate the ancient Library, it stands as a gesture toward Alexandria’s enduring association with knowledge and openness.

Modern Alexandria faces significant challenges, including urban overcrowding, environmental threats, and economic inequality. Yet its layered history continues to shape its identity. The city’s residents live among echoes of past empires, even when those echoes are barely visible.

Conclusion: Alexandria as a Human Story

The history of Alexandria is ultimately a human story of ambition and curiosity, of coexistence and conflict, of creation and loss. It reminds us that cities are not static monuments but living organisms shaped by people, ideas, and forces beyond any single generation’s control.

Alexandria’s greatest legacy may not be a building or an institution, but a way of imagining the world: as something that can be studied, shared, and debated across cultures. Even in decline, even in fragments, that idea continues to resonate. In this sense, Alexandria has never truly disappeared; it has simply changed form, carrying its past into every new age.