The Ustaše

Introduction

The Ustaše (singular Ustaša) were a Croatian ultranationalist and fascist political movement that played a central role in one of the most brutal regimes in Europe during the 20th century. Active primarily between 1929 and 1945, the Ustaše sought to transform Croatia into an ethnically homogeneous state through violent revolution, political terrorism, and ultimately the perpetration of genocide.

Origins and Ideological Foundations

Early Nationalism and the Formation of the Ustaše

The Ustaše movement was formed in 1929 by Croatian nationalist leader Ante Pavelić during the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Disillusioned with the centralized Yugoslav state dominated politically by Serbs, and influenced by earlier Croatian intellectual nationalism, Pavelić and his followers sought a separate Croatian state. The name “Ustaša” itself is derived from the Croatian verb ustati, meaning “to rise up,” indicating their insurgent and revolutionary ambitions.

Ideologically, the Ustaše blended ultranationalism with elements of fascism, drawing inspiration from both Italian Fascism under Benito Mussolini and, later, from aspects of National Socialism in Germany. They were committed to radical Croatian independence, but this commitment also included deeply exclusionary and racist beliefs. Their worldview combined national self-determination with virulent hatred of perceived enemies—especially Serbs, Jews, and Roma.

Ante Pavelić and Leadership

Ante Pavelić (1889–1959), a lawyer and seasoned Croatian politician, became the face of the Ustaše movement. After the imposition of King Alexander I’s dictatorship in Yugoslavia in 1929, which suppressed all political parties and movements, Pavelić fled abroad. There, he formalized the Ustaše as a revolutionary nationalist organization distinct from mainstream Croatian political parties. His leadership was characterized by an embrace of violence and terrorism as legitimate political tools.

The organization’s early activities included establishing training camps in Italy and Hungary and engaging in political violence aimed at destabilizing Yugoslavia. Most notably, in 1934, Ustaše agents collaborated with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) to assassinate King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, France—an act that gained international attention and underscored their aggressive tactics.

Ideological Influences and Expansion

The ideology of the Ustaše did not emerge in a vacuum. It built upon earlier strands of Croatian nationalism, including the 19th-century influence of thinkers who emphasized Croatian independence and identity. This ideological strain often carried a strong anti-Serbian element, which would later translate into policies of persecution and ethnic cleansing under Ustaše rule.

By the late 1930s, the Ustaše had shifted from a fringe revolutionary group to a fully developed fascist movement with defined political goals: the creation of an ethnically “pure” Croatian state, freed from perceived internal enemies and minorities. Their rhetoric increasingly adopted racist and exclusionary language, foreshadowing the genocidal violence of the 1941–1945 period.

The Independent State of Croatia and Axis Support

The Axis Invasion of Yugoslavia

The outbreak of World War II and the swift Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 created conditions for the Ustaše to seize power. German and Italian forces dismantled the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which collapsed under military pressure. In the chaos, the Ustaše were installed as the governing authorities of a new puppet regime: the Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska — NDH), proclaimed on April 10, 1941.

Though nominally independent, the NDH was heavily controlled by its Axis sponsors—Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The state encompassed most of modern Croatia, all of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and some parts of neighboring regions. The boundaries were shaped more by Axis strategic interests than by any coherent national logic.

State Structure and Early Policies

Upon assuming control, the Ustaše immediately began implementing radical and repressive policies. The NDH’s government structured itself along totalitarian lines, with Pavelić assuming the title Poglavnik, meaning “Leader.” The regime outlawed dissent, centralized power, and began enacting sweeping measures targeting minority populations and political opponents.

The Ustaše regime quickly adopted racist and exclusionary laws that mirrored, and in some cases extended beyond, those in Nazi Germany. These laws institutionalized discrimination against Jews, Serbs, Roma, and others deemed undesirable or dangerous to the envisioned Croatian nation.

Ustaše Rule and Lack of Broad Support

Despite the political power the Ustaše wielded, they never enjoyed widespread popular support among Croats. Many Croatians were indifferent or actively opposed to the regime’s brutality, and terror became the primary tool by which the Ustaše tried to control the ethnically diverse population of the NDH.

Genocide and Mass Atrocities (1941–1945)

Campaigns of Violence: Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing

Once in power, the Ustaše launched a systematic campaign of violence aimed at forging an ethnically homogeneous Croatian state. While Serbs were the principal target, Jews and Roma were also subjected to extermination and persecution. Political opponents and dissenting Croats were also targeted.

The genocide of Serbs within the NDH included mass killings, forced conversions to Catholicism, expulsions, and deportations to concentration and extermination camps. Estimates of the total number of Serbs killed during this period by Ustaše policies vary, but conservative historical estimates suggest between 200,000 and 500,000 Serbs were killed. Additionally, hundreds of thousands were expelled or forcibly converted.

The Ustaše also actively participated in the Holocaust against Jews and the Porajmos genocide targeting Roma, killing tens of thousands in the NDH. These actions were part of the broader Axis genocide enterprise, though the Ustaše regime was independently responsible for some of its own atrocities and systemic brutality.

Concentration Camps and Execution Sites

Jasenovac: The Notorious Camp Complex

One of the darkest symbols of Ustaše terror was the Jasenovac concentration and extermination camp complex. Established in August 1941 on the banks of the Sava and Una rivers, Jasenovac became the largest and most notorious site of mass murder in the NDH. Guarded by Ustaše personnel, the camp was a place of extreme brutality where prisoners were tortured and killed in horrifying ways.

Estimates of the number of victims at Jasenovac vary, but modern historians suggest that tens of thousands of inmates were murdered there, including Serbs, Jews, Roma, and political prisoners.

The killings at Jasenovac were not mechanized like those in Nazi death camps with gas chambers but were often carried out through direct violence—beheading, shooting, beating, and other forms of mutilation. The unparalleled cruelty contributed to its fearsome reputation as the “Auschwitz of the Balkans.”

Other Camps and Execution Sites

In addition to Jasenovac, the Ustaše established numerous other internment and extermination sites:

Stara Gradiška, a subcamp focused on women and children, where thousands were killed.
Đakovo Internment Camp, which held Jewish and Serb women and children before many were transported to Jasenovac.
Garavice killings near Bihać, where between 7,000 and 12,000 mainly Serbs and Jews were murdered.

These camps and massacres formed part of the comprehensive strategy of terror and genocide implemented across the territory of the NDH.

Patterns of Massacres and Violence

Throughout 1941–1945, the Ustaše regime carried out numerous localized massacres against civilian populations. These killings were not isolated incidents but part of the broader genocidal policy targeting ethnic and religious minorities in the NDH.

The Gudovac massacre in April 1941 marked one of the early mass killings of Serbs after the Ustaše came to power.
The Banski Grabovac massacre in July 1941 saw over a thousand Serbs killed in retaliation for acts of resistance.
Multiple other massacres occurred across villages and towns in the NDH as part of campaigns of terror that aimed to break community structures and depopulate targeted groups.

These violence patterns demonstrated the regime’s reliance on brutal repression and terror to maintain control and implement its vision of ethnic transformation.

Resistance and Its Impact

Partisan Resistance

The Ustaše’s policies fueled resistance across Yugoslavia. Many Serbs, alongside other groups including communists and anti-fascist Croats, joined the Partisan movement led by Marshal Josip Broz Tito. These resistance forces fought both Axis armies and Ustaše units throughout the war, contributing significantly to the eventual liberation of Yugoslav territories.

The Partisans’ multi-ethnic composition stood in stark contrast to the Ustaše’s ethnically exclusive vision. Their success gradually undermined Ustaše control, and by 1944–1945, the Partisans had liberated large portions of Croatia and Bosnia. With the collapse of Nazi Germany in early 1945, the Ustaše regime ultimately fell apart.

End of the Ustaše Regime

As the war neared its end, many members of the Ustaše, including Pavelić, fled the advancing Partisan forces. Pavelić escaped through Austria and Italy and ultimately reached Argentina, where he lived in exile until his death in 1959. Some Ustaše were captured and executed, while others managed to evade justice through various means.

The collapse of the Ustaše marked not just the end of a regime, but also the conclusion of one of Europe’s most gruesome episodes of mass violence, irrespective of its lasting scars on the region’s populations.

Aftermath and Postwar Memory

Trials and Accountability

After World War II, many high-ranking Ustaše officials and camp commandants were prosecuted for war crimes. Leaders of massacres and those responsible for camp operations faced justice in the new socialist Yugoslavia. However, a significant number of perpetrators escaped prosecution, either because they fled abroad or because the chaotic postwar environment did not allow comprehensive trials.

Some Ustaše escaped to South America and Spain, where they lived under assumed identities or in communities that sheltered them. Pavelić himself was the target of an assassination attempt in 1957, reflecting ongoing anger over his crimes.

Legacy and Controversy

The legacy of the Ustaše remains deeply controversial. Societal memory in Croatia and the wider Balkans is contested, with debates over historical responsibility, commemoration, and the interpretation of past events still active today.

Official commemorations and educational efforts in Croatia increasingly acknowledge the atrocity of the Ustaše period, particularly in remembering victims at places like Jasenovac. In 2025, Croatia held a public commemoration marking the 80th anniversary of events at Jasenovac, attended by diverse communities, signaling efforts toward broader recognition of historical suffering.

Nevertheless, parts of society have resisted full historical reckoning, and debates over public memory, street names, and historical symbols continue to surface. These disputes reflect ongoing struggles to reconcile nationalist sentiment with historical truth.

Conclusion: The Weight of History

The Ustaše movement represents a profoundly dark chapter in 20th-century European history. Born of radical ultranationalism and influenced by fascist ideology, it seized power under the auspices of Axis occupation and implemented systematic genocide and mass violence as state policy. The consequences of their rule were catastrophic for hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians.