Early Years and Naval Beginnings
Birth and Family Background
Matthew Calbraith Perry was born on April 10, 1794, in Newport, Rhode Island, a city familiar with salt air, shipyards, and seafaring. Newport was a pivotal maritime community in the young United States, and Perry’s family was deeply rooted in naval tradition. His father, Captain Christopher Perry, was a mariner, and his older brother, Oliver Hazard Perry, would later win renown as a commander in the War of 1812.
Growing up amid a community shaped by shipbuilding and oceanic trade, Matthew developed an early fascination with naval affairs and service. With encouragement from his family, Perry entered the U.S. Navy at just 14 years old – an age when most boys were still mastering reading and basic schooling. His entry was gradual: he enlisted as a young sailor onboard vessels, learning knots, rigging, and the fundamentals of life at sea.
Naval Apprenticeship and Early Experiences
Perry’s first notable assignment was aboard the USS Revenge, under his brother Oliver’s command. Although that ship sank in a storm early in his career, Perry’s re‑assignment to the USS President placed him in direct involvement with rising tensions between the United States and Great Britain.
In 1811, Perry participated in the Little Belt Affair, a naval incident with the British sloop HMS Little Belt that later became one of the catalysts for the War of 1812. There, Perry was exposed to the realities of naval combat, diplomacy, and the fragile nature of peace between nations.
The War of 1812 and Its Impact
During the War of 1812, Perry was aboard the USS President in attempts to intercept British vessels. Though not as celebrated as his brother’s famous victory at the Battle of Lake Erie, Matthew Perry faced combat, was wounded, and gained firsthand experience that shaped his future approach to command and discipline.
These early experiences helped Perry develop attributes that would define his career: rigor, preparedness, discipline, and an appreciation for the role of naval power in national security.
Mid‑Career: Innovation, Naval Reform, and Global Service
Champions of Steam and Naval Modernization
Following the War of 1812, Perry turned his attention toward innovation. He recognized that the era of sail was giving way to steam propulsion — a technological revolution that upended naval warfare and commerce. Acting on this conviction, he became a prominent advocate for steam technology within the U.S. Navy.
In 1837, Perry took command of the USS Fulton, the Navy’s first steamship, and served as its commanding officer. His leadership on steam-powered vessels earned him informal titles such as the “Father of the Steam Navy” in American naval history.
Perry also played a critical role in establishing a naval steam corps of engineers — specialists responsible for operating and maintaining steam engines — as well as advocating for formal naval education and apprenticeship systems. He helped create institutions and practices that would undergird U.S. naval power for decades.
Diplomatic Service and World Assignments
Perry’s talents extended beyond ship command. In 1830, he served as U.S. Consul to Russia, broadening his understanding of international politics and naval strategy. This diplomatic post strengthened his ability to navigate complex cultural and political environments — a skill that would prove invaluable in East Asia.
In 1843, Perry commanded the Africa Squadron, part of an international effort to suppress the trans-Atlantic slave trade under the Webster-Ashburton Treaty. Although ultimately unable to halt the trade entirely, this mission demonstrated American commitment to global maritime security and further exposed Perry to combined diplomatic‑naval operations.
The Mexican‑American War (1846–1848): Combat and Operational Command
During the Mexican‑American War, Perry commanded operations aboard the USS Mississippi and later the Home Squadron, contributing to significant engagements along the Gulf Coast. Under his leadership:
- U.S. forces captured Frontera.
- Operations were conducted at Tabasco, Tampico, and Veracruz.
- The naval blockade and coastal support facilitated American advances.
These engagements proved Perry’s capabilities not only in peaceful diplomacy but also in wartime operations. His strategic adaptability — from fighting to negotiating — distinguished him among his peers.
Prelude to Japan: The U.S. Strategic Imperative in the Pacific
Global Context: Changing Geopolitical Priorities
By the mid-19th century, the United States was expanding westward and turning attentions toward Asia. After the Treaty with China (1844) granted American traders access to Chinese ports, the need for a Pacific foothold became obvious. American whalers and merchant vessels sought safe anchorages for fuel and supplies, and diplomatic relations with Asian nations were becoming increasingly valuable.
Japan’s long-standing sakoku policy (“closed country”) — a self-imposed isolation lasting over 200 years — was seen by Western powers as both an obstacle and opportunity. Japan had permitted limited Dutch and Chinese contact through Nagasaki, but successive shogunates resisted deeper engagement with Western nations.
President Millard Fillmore believed opening Japan would protect American lives after numerous shipwrecks and provide strategic benefits for trade and navigation. Initially, Commodore John Aulick was tasked with this mission, but he was replaced before departure, and Perry was selected to lead the expedition.
The Japan Expedition: A Turning Point in World History
Planning and Strategy
Perry understood that Japan’s isolationist posture would require more than mere requests to change. He concluded that the Japanese would respond only to a bold show of force, tempered with disciplined diplomacy. His instructions allowed the use of “any vigorous and intimidating means necessary,” though without initiating war.
Perry insisted on departing with a powerful squadron of modern ships — including steam-powered vessels — to demonstrate U.S. naval strength. This was a clear signal that diplomacy here would be backed by capability and resolve.
First Arrival: Uraga and Edo Bay (July 1853)
On July 8, 1853, Perry entered the fortified harbor at Uraga, near Edo (present-day Tokyo), with four ships — two frigates and two sailing vessels. His ships, belching smoke from coal-fired steam engines, startled the Japanese, who had never seen steam technology on this scale.
Perry refused to comply with demands to leave and insisted on delivering a letter from President Fillmore. He even used the title “admiral” to reinforce his authority, and he made clear that refusal to receive the letter could lead to forceful delivery.
Eventually, Japanese officials — aware of their military disadvantage and conscious of China’s recent defeat in the Opium War — accepted the letter. But rather than offering an immediate response, they asked Perry to return the following year after they had deliberated on how to proceed.
Interim Visits: Ryukyus and Bonin Islands
While awaiting a response, Perry sailed through nearby island chains including the Ryukyus and Bonin Islands, asserting U.S. presence and influence in the region. These interim excursions underscored the expanding footprint of American naval power in the Pacific and raised the stakes for Japan’s leadership.
Return to Japan (February–March 1854)
Perry returned in February 1854 with a larger squadron of nine ships — signaling both determination and superior force. This time, Japanese officials were ready to negotiate, and over several weeks discussions culminated in the Treaty of Kanagawa on March 31, 1854.
The Treaty of Kanagawa: Opening Japan
Key Provisions
The Treaty of Kanagawa established the first formal diplomatic and commercial agreements between the United States and Japan. Its main provisions included:
- Peace and friendship between the two nations.
- Opening of two ports (Shimoda and Hakodate) for American ships to receive fuel, provisions, and shelter.
- Protection and humane treatment of shipwrecked American sailors.
- Permission for the United States to appoint a consul in Japan.
Importantly, while the treaty did not immediately guarantee broad trade rights, it did set the stage for future economic and diplomatic expansion by the U.S. and other Western powers.
Impact on Japan: Collapse of Isolation and the Meiji Transformation
Repercussions for the Tokugawa Shogunate
Perry’s success exposed the weaknesses of the Tokugawa Shogunate — Japan’s hereditary military government — which had maintained strict control for over two centuries. The compelled opening highlighted its inability to resist foreign pressure and protect Japanese sovereignty under existing policies.
While the shogunate had long managed restricted foreign interactions, Perry’s arrival underscored a critical turning point. Japan’s leaders realized that continued isolation was untenable in the face of modern naval power and expanding global trade.
Catalyst for Modernization
Though the Treaty of Kanagawa itself was limited, it sparked a chain of events that accelerated Japan’s transformation:
- Japanese officials sought to strengthen military defenses and technology.
- They began studying Western science, industry, and governance.
- Internal political pressure increased for reform, eventually contributing to the downfall of the shogunate.
In the decades that followed, Japan underwent dramatic political, economic, and social changes during the Meiji Restoration — becoming a modern industrial nation capable of competing with Western powers.
Return to the United States and Final Years
Recognition and Publications
Perry returned to the United States in January 1855 to official acknowledgment. Although public enthusiasm was initially lukewarm, Congress awarded him a $20,000 reward, and he received commendations from naval authorities.
He devoted much of his later years to documenting the expedition and writing a detailed account that would influence future naval strategy and historical understanding.
Health Decline and Death
Despite a career marked by distinction, Perry’s health deteriorated later in life. After years at sea and extensive travel, compounded by personal struggles including heavy drinking, he succumbed to rheumatic fever and other ailments on March 4, 1858, in New York City.
Although initially interred in New York, Perry’s remains were later moved to Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island, where a monument was erected in his honor.
Legacy: A Complex and Lasting Influence
A Pioneer of American Naval Power
Matthew C. Perry’s career left an indelible mark on the U.S. Navy. His advocacy for steam technology, improved training, and professional discipline helped shape an American naval identity that would become pivotal in later global conflicts.
Symbol of Global Diplomacy and Power Projection
Perry’s Japan Expedition remains a landmark event in world history — one of the first major acts of Western influence in East Asia, predating other imperial ambitions. It illustrated how naval strength, diplomacy, and strategic timing could reshape international relations.
Contested Interpretations
Historians continue to debate Perry’s legacy. In the United States, he is often hailed as a diplomatic trailblazer. In Japan, he is remembered both as a foreign intrusion that ended national seclusion and as a catalyst for modernization. His arrival is still associated with the dramatic shift from the Edo period to the Meiji era.
The Knowledge Base 
Leave a comment