The Hundred Years War

Introduction

The conflict known as the Hundred Years’ War stands as one of the most complex and transformative struggles in European history. Despite its misleading name, the war did not last exactly one hundred years, nor was it a single, uninterrupted conflict. Instead, it was a prolonged series of wars, truces, invasions, and political maneuvers fought primarily between the kingdoms of England and France from 1337 to 1453. Over more than a century, generations of soldiers, nobles, peasants, and monarchs were shaped by its violence and uncertainty. The war altered the nature of warfare, reshaped political authority, weakened feudalism, and contributed significantly to the development of national identity in both England and France.

At its core, the Hundred Years’ War was a struggle over sovereignty, legitimacy, and territory. English kings claimed the French crown through dynastic inheritance, while French rulers fought to defend their independence and consolidate their authority. Economic interests, especially control of valuable regions such as Aquitaine and Flanders, further intensified the rivalry. As the war evolved, it ceased to be merely a dynastic dispute and became a broader conflict involving social change, military innovation, and ideological transformation.

Feudal Roots and the Origins of the Conflict

The origins of the Hundred Years’ War lie deep in the feudal relationships that bound medieval Europe together. Following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, English kings held extensive lands in France. These lands were technically held as fiefs from the French crown, placing the English monarch in the awkward position of being both a sovereign king and a vassal to another king. Over time, this arrangement became increasingly unstable.

By the early fourteenth century, the English crown controlled the duchy of Aquitaine (also known as Gascony), a region of great economic importance due to its wine trade. French kings sought to assert greater control over this territory, while English kings resisted any attempts to limit their autonomy. Tensions escalated through legal disputes, confiscations, and intermittent warfare.

The immediate trigger for war came in 1328, when the French king Charles IV died without a male heir. Edward III of England, the grandson of Philip IV of France through his mother Isabella, claimed the French throne. However, French nobles rejected his claim, citing Salic Law, which excluded inheritance through the female line, and instead crowned Philip VI of the Valois dynasty. Edward initially accepted this decision, but growing disputes over Aquitaine and French interference in Anglo-Flemish relations eventually led him to renew his claim to the French crown in 1337. This declaration marked the formal beginning of the Hundred Years’ War.

The Political and Economic Stakes

The Hundred Years’ War was driven not only by dynastic claims but also by powerful political and economic interests. Control of land meant control of wealth, labor, and prestige. For England, maintaining territories in France was crucial to sustaining noble support and funding the monarchy. For France, expelling English rule was essential to strengthening royal authority and unifying the kingdom.

Flanders, a wealthy region dependent on English wool for its textile industry, played a particularly important role. French influence over Flanders threatened English economic interests, while Flemish cities often supported England to protect their trade. This economic dimension ensured that the war extended beyond the borders of England and France, drawing in allies and mercenaries from across Europe.

Taxation was another key factor. Both monarchies relied heavily on extraordinary taxes to fund military campaigns. In England, the need for parliamentary approval of taxes strengthened the role of Parliament, while in France, repeated taxation increased resentment among the population and contributed to social unrest. The war thus became deeply intertwined with the internal political development of both kingdoms.

The Edwardian Phase: English Ascendancy

The early phase of the Hundred Years’ War, often called the Edwardian War (1337–1360), was marked by significant English successes. Edward III proved to be an able military leader, and English armies achieved a series of stunning victories against larger French forces.

One of the most famous battles of this period was the Battle of Crécy in 1346. English forces, relying heavily on longbowmen, defeated the French cavalry in a decisive engagement. The battle demonstrated the declining effectiveness of traditional knightly warfare and highlighted the importance of disciplined infantry and ranged weapons. Crécy was followed by the siege and capture of Calais, which became a vital English stronghold on the French coast for over two centuries.

Another major victory came at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, where the English, led by Edward’s son known as the Black Prince, captured the French king John II. This humiliating defeat plunged France into political chaos. The capture of the king forced France to negotiate the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360, which granted England vast territories in southwestern France and temporarily ended the conflict.

War, Society, and the Black Death

The Hundred Years’ War unfolded against the backdrop of one of the greatest catastrophes in human history: the Black Death. Beginning in the late 1340s, the plague devastated Europe, killing perhaps a third of the population. The demographic collapse had profound consequences for both the war and medieval society as a whole.

Labor shortages empowered peasants and workers, leading to rising wages and social mobility in some regions. At the same time, the destruction of crops, villages, and trade routes by roaming armies exacerbated famine and hardship. Soldiers often lived off the land, looting and terrorizing civilian populations. The war thus blurred the line between military and civilian suffering.

Social tensions erupted into open rebellion on several occasions. In France, the Jacquerie of 1358 saw peasants rise up against the nobility, fueled by anger at heavy taxation and noble incompetence. In England, the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, while not directly caused by the war, was influenced by the financial burdens imposed by prolonged conflict. These uprisings revealed the deep strains that the Hundred Years’ War placed on medieval society.

The Caroline Phase: French Recovery

The period following the Treaty of Brétigny saw a remarkable French recovery, known as the Caroline War (1369–1389), named after King Charles V of France. Rather than seeking dramatic battlefield victories, Charles pursued a strategy of attrition. Under the leadership of capable commanders such as Bertrand du Guesclin, French forces avoided large engagements and instead targeted English garrisons and supply lines.

This approach proved highly effective. Gradually, the French recaptured much of the territory lost under the Treaty of Brétigny. Internal problems in England, including financial strain and political instability, further weakened the English position. By the end of the fourteenth century, English holdings in France had been reduced primarily to Calais and parts of Aquitaine.

The Caroline phase demonstrated that the war was not simply a contest of brute force but also one of strategy, administration, and endurance. French success owed much to improved taxation systems, stronger royal authority, and a more flexible approach to warfare.

Truce, Civil War, and Renewed Conflict

The early fifteenth century brought a temporary lull in Anglo-French warfare, but peace remained elusive. France descended into civil war between two rival factions: the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. This internal conflict weakened France and created an opportunity for renewed English intervention.

In 1415, King Henry V of England launched a new invasion of France. His campaign culminated in the Battle of Agincourt, one of the most celebrated victories in English history. Despite being heavily outnumbered, English forces once again used longbows and terrain to devastating effect, inflicting massive casualties on the French nobility.

Agincourt reinvigorated English ambitions and led to the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. Under this agreement, Henry V was recognized as heir to the French throne and married to Catherine of Valois, the daughter of the French king Charles VI. The treaty effectively disinherited the French dauphin, later Charles VII, and seemed to place England on the verge of ultimate victory.

The Role of Joan of Arc

The tide of the Hundred Years’ War turned dramatically with the emergence of one of its most remarkable figures: Joan of Arc. A peasant girl from Lorraine, Joan claimed to be guided by divine visions instructing her to support Charles VII and drive the English from France. In 1429, she was granted command of a French force and played a crucial role in lifting the English siege of Orléans.

Joan’s success had an enormous psychological impact. Her presence revitalized French morale and challenged the assumption that the war was divinely sanctioned in England’s favor. Following the relief of Orléans, French forces achieved a series of victories, enabling Charles VII to be crowned at Reims, a traditional site of French coronations.

Despite her successes, Joan was captured by Burgundian forces in 1430 and handed over to the English. She was tried for heresy and executed in 1431. Although her life was tragically short, her legacy endured. Joan became a symbol of French unity and resistance, and her actions marked a turning point in the war.

The Final Phase and the End of the War

After Joan of Arc’s death, French momentum continued to build. Charles VII implemented significant military reforms, including the creation of a standing army and the increased use of artillery. These changes reduced reliance on feudal levies and mercenaries, giving France a more professional and reliable military force.

Artillery played a decisive role in the final decades of the war. French cannons proved highly effective against English fortifications, rendering traditional castles increasingly obsolete. One by one, English strongholds fell. The Battle of Castillon in 1453, often considered the last major battle of the Hundred Years’ War, saw French artillery annihilate an English army and secure control of Gascony.

By the end of the conflict, England retained only the port of Calais, and even this would be lost in 1558. The war had effectively ended English ambitions of ruling France and marked the emergence of France as a centralized and powerful state.

Changes in Warfare and Military Technology

One of the most significant legacies of the Hundred Years’ War was its impact on the conduct of warfare. The conflict witnessed the decline of heavily armored knights as the dominant force on the battlefield. Infantry, longbowmen, and eventually gunpowder weapons proved increasingly decisive.

The English longbow, in particular, became a symbol of military innovation. Its effectiveness at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt demonstrated that well-trained common soldiers could defeat elite cavalry. Over time, however, the French adapted, emphasizing combined arms tactics and artillery.

The war also encouraged the development of standing armies and permanent taxation systems to support them. These changes laid the groundwork for the modern state, in which rulers exercised greater control over military resources and reduced their dependence on feudal obligations.

National Identity and Cultural Impact

Perhaps the most enduring consequence of the Hundred Years’ War was the emergence of stronger national identities in England and France. At the beginning of the conflict, loyalties were often local or feudal, and the idea of a unified nation was relatively weak. Over time, prolonged warfare against a common enemy fostered a sense of shared identity.

In France, the war contributed to the perception of the king as a national leader rather than merely a feudal lord. In England, the loss of French territories shifted focus inward and encouraged the use of English rather than French in government and literature. Writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer reflected this cultural shift, helping to shape a distinct English literary tradition.

The war also left a deep imprint on collective memory. Stories of heroic victories, tragic defeats, and legendary figures like Joan of Arc became central to national mythologies, influencing politics and culture for centuries to come.

Conclusion

The Hundred Years’ War was far more than a prolonged military struggle between two rival kingdoms. It was a transformative period that reshaped political institutions, military practices, social structures, and cultural identities. Beginning as a dynastic dispute rooted in feudal relationships, it evolved into a broader conflict that accelerated the decline of medieval feudalism and contributed to the rise of the modern state.

For England, the war ended dreams of continental empire but strengthened parliamentary institutions and national consciousness. For France, it brought devastation and suffering but ultimately resulted in greater unity and royal authority. The legacy of the Hundred Years’ War can still be seen in the political boundaries, cultural traditions, and historical memories of Europe today.