The history of Linux

Introduction

In the landscape of modern computing, few software artifacts have had as profound and pervasive an impact as Linux. From powering the vast majority of the world’s servers and supercomputers, to enabling billions of smartphones, appliances, and embedded systems, Linux has become both ubiquitous and indispensable. Yet its origins were humble: a single‑person effort by a university student.

Precursors: Unix and the Roots of Open Computing

To understand Linux, one must first understand its conceptual ancestor: Unix. Developed beginning in 1969 at Bell Labs by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others, Unix was designed as a multi‑user, multi‑tasking operating system. It quickly became influential due to its elegant design and implementation in the high‑level C programming language – a novelty at the time – which made it portable across different hardware platforms.

Unix’s ethos, tools, and interfaces shaped the directions of operating system design for decades. It inspired subsequent generations of systems and programmers – especially those in academic settings – who prized its simplicity, performance, and utility. In parallel, the GNU Project, started by Richard Stallman in 1983, pursued the creation of a complete free software alternative to Unix, one that would grant users the freedom to study, modify, and share software without restriction.

1991: A Student and a Hobby Project

In 1991, Linus Benedict Torvalds, a 21‑year‑old computer science student at the University of Helsinki, embarked on what he called a “hobby” project: to write an operating system kernel for his personal computer. At the time, Torvalds was frustrated by the limitations and cost of the MINIX operating system — itself a Unix‑like system created for educational use. He wanted something more powerful, flexible, and open.

On 25 August 1991, Torvalds posted a message to the comp.os.minix newsgroup announcing his work on this new system, stating that it was “just a hobby” and not intended to be big or professional.

On 17 September 1991, he made the first version of the Linux kernel — version 0.01 — publicly available via an FTP server. This initial release wasn’t yet a complete operating system: it required other system components, such as the GNU tools, to be useful. But it was a crucial first step: a free, modifiable kernel written from scratch that others could build upon.

1992: The GPL and the Birth of Collaborative Development

The first versions of Linux came with Torvalds’s own licensing terms — but in early 1992, he made a pivotal decision: he relicensed the Linux kernel under the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 2.

This decision had enormous consequences. The GPL didn’t simply ensure that Linux’s source code was freely available; it legally obliged that any distribution or derivative work must also remain free and open. It created a legal framework enabling global collaboration without fear of proprietary capture. In practical terms, it meant developers everywhere could contribute, adapt, and redistribute modified kernels as long as they shared their changes.

Almost immediately, contributions poured in. Developers from around the world, previously isolated on BBSs and in academic institutions, began exchanging patches, ideas, drivers, and new features. By the end of 1992, Linux was more than a solitary student’s project — it was a distributed international effort.

1993–1994: Distributions, Growth, and Maturity

By 1993, Linux’s reach had expanded dramatically. Hundreds of developers were working on the kernel and related projects, and the ecosystem of software around it was growing. It was in this period that the concept of a Linux distribution — a bundled set of the kernel plus tools and applications — began to crystallize.

Among the earliest and most enduring of these was Slackware, which became the oldest surviving Linux distribution. In the same year, the Debian Project was founded by Ian Murdock with the goal of creating a distribution maintained in the spirit of open, community governance.

In 1994, Torvalds declared the core components of the kernel to be mature, and released Linux version 1.0, a significant milestone. This release signaled that Linux was not merely a tinkering project, but a viable, production‑worthy system. Moreover, major players in the emerging Linux ecosystem — such as Red Hat and SUSE — began publishing their own distributions, enabling broader adoption.

It was also during this time that the graphical user environment for Linux — initially provided through projects such as XFree86 and later GNOME and KDE — began becoming more polished, making Linux more accessible to everyday users.

1995–1998: Scaling, Company Support, and Commercial Interest

As Linux matured through the mid‑1990s, its technical capabilities expanded. With Linux kernel 2.0 released in 1996, Linux gained support for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) — the ability to use multiple CPUs concurrently — which made it viable for high‑performance systems and enterprise use.

By the late 1990s, Linux was starting to attract attention beyond hobbyists and academic programmers. Major technology companies — including IBM, Compaq, and Oracle — began providing resources, endorsements, or direct contributions to the Linux ecosystem, a watershed moment that helped dispel the notion of Linux as fringe or niche.

Linux’s open‑source development model also captured broader interest during this period. The publication of The Cathedral and the Bazaar in 1998, an influential essay (later book) that analyzed the strengths of open collaborative development, brought Linux’s model to the mainstream tech press and helped catalyze corporate and community engagement alike.

1999–2004: Enterprise Adoption and Infrastructure Expansion

As the new millennium dawned, Linux’s utility became increasingly clear in server, network, and enterprise environments. Tech giants invested substantial resources into Linux development and deployment, often viewing it as a strategic alternative to costly proprietary systems.

In 2001, IBM announced a multi‑billion‑dollar investment in Linux, signaling major corporate confidence. Government agencies worldwide also began adopting Linux as a cost‑effective, customizable platform for critical infrastructure.

During this period, Linux also began dominating in areas few had anticipated. By the mid‑2000s, Linux‑based systems, paired with open‑source tools such as Apache, MySQL, and PHP, became the backbone of web servers, cloud services, and high‑availability computing systems.

2005–2010: Mobile, Consumer, and Cloud Transformations

The evolution of Linux took an unexpected yet transformative turn with the rise of mobile computing. In 2007, Google announced Android, a new mobile operating system whose kernel was based on Linux. Though Android would have a distinct architecture and user experience distinct from traditional desktop Linux, its reliance on the Linux kernel brought Linux into the hands of billions of smartphone users globally.

Simultaneously, Linux continued its deep penetration of enterprise infrastructure. By the early 2010s, many major cloud computing platforms and virtualization solutions were built on Linux foundations, taking advantage of its scalability, stability, and open nature.

2011–2018: Powering Supercomputing, Containers, and Modern Workloads

By the time Linux celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2011, it was clear that it had moved far beyond its modest origins. Linux was everywhere: in embedded systems, servers, networking gear, and consumer devices alike.

One of the most remarkable domains of Linux’s success has been supercomputing. Over the years, Linux gradually overtook proprietary systems on the TOP500 list of the world’s fastest supercomputers, and by the late 2010s, every single machine on that list was running Linux – a testament to its performance, adaptability, and community‑driven innovation.

Additionally, Linux became central to emerging technologies like containers and orchestration platforms such as Docker and Kubernetes – tools that now drive cloud‑native computing and distributed architectures across industries.

2019–Present: Ongoing Development and a Platform of Platforms

In recent years, Linux development has continued unabated. Kernel versions have advanced steadily: Linux 5.0 was released in 2019, followed by Linux 6.0 in 2022, and discussions about Linux 7.0 were underway in 2026 as the project adapts to continued technological shifts and performance demands.

Beyond the kernel itself, the Linux ecosystem has evolved in myriad directions. Desktop distributions continue to innovate, mobile and edge computing platforms grow, developers build new tools and interfaces, and enterprises depend on Linux as a strategic foundation for cloud, AI, and data infrastructure.

Interestingly, even companies historically seen as rivals to open‑source Linux have embraced it in surprising ways. For example, Microsoft’s Windows Subsystem for Linux project – originally designed to allow Linux environments to run within Windows – was fully open‑sourced in 2025, reflecting how pervasive and influential Linux has become even among traditional proprietary vendors.